IBM has jumped into water production & distribution. They currently have a web page that states:

Micromanaging our environment down to the nano-level

Five Innovations That Could Change Your Life in Five Years.

Early this year, IBM will undertake new research projects focused on the environment: advanced water modeling, water filtration via nanotechnology and efficient solar power systems.

Advanced water modeling, distribution and management systems

The ability to support economic and population growth has been contingent upon whether urban planners can ensure a reliable supply of water to residential and commercial establishments.

With the ubiquity of IP-based technology today, it is possible to envision a technologically enabled “smart” water distribution system that helps manage the end-to-end distribution, from reservoirs to pumping stations to smart pipes to holding tanks to intelligent metering at the user site so consumption could be managed in a responsible way.

The water distribution system would serve as a grid, much like a utility grid, at multiple levels: federal/central, regional, city/town and even down to a single residence or commercial establishment.

Water desalination using carbon nanotubes
The current methods of desalinating water, reverse osmosis and distillation, are both expensive and high maintenance. IBM will research methods of filtering water at the molecular level, using carbon nanotubes or molecular configurations, which can potentially remove the salt and impurities with less energy and money per gallon.

Efficient solar power systems

Political instability, the high cost of fossil fuels and worries about global warming have increased interest in alternative energies. IBM is a leader in developing silicon technologies-the microprocessors that run the world’s leading game machines. We believe technology developments in this area will help further advance solar power and make it more efficient.

Why is IBM jumping into the Game. Many major companies are getting involved because the demand for water is rising faster than governments currently have solutions. This means the price of water will rise. Consider this Reuters Article:

ANALYSIS-Thirsty world captures investors’ attention

02 May 2007 11:00:41 GMT

By Christine Stebbins CHICAGO, May 2 (Reuters) – The competition for clean water is heating up and the world’s businesses have noticed.

The need to feed up to two billion more people by 2025, booming industrialization in developing countries like China, and a warming climate seen threatening the world’s most precious natural resource has investors serious about water.

“Regardless of what happens to the economy — you can bet and bank on a predictable demand for water. It is a product that is essential to life,” said Deane Dray, who analyzes water markets for Goldman Sachs in New York.

“People will largely pay ‘whatever’ because it is life-sustaining and there is no substitute. You put all those together, it is very clear why companies are enthusiastic about water.”

The United Nations Human Development Report for 2006 said that by 2025, if current global water consumption continues, more than 3 billion of the world’s 7.9 billion people will be living in areas where water is scarce.

Indeed, conflicts over water rights are already going on in dozens of areas from sub-Saharan Africa to the Middle East to Australia, India, eastern Asia and the U.S. Southwest.

One expert estimates that in the next 25 years trillions of dollars will be needed to upgrade fresh water and waste water technology and build new infrastructure to deliver water, with the bulk of that money to be spent in Asia.

“Infrastructure upgrades that are going to be required over the next 25 years on a global basis could be close to $20 trillion,” said John Balbach, managing partner at Cleantech Group, a venture capital research firm in green technology based in Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Such huge costs mean a budget nightmare for governments, a reality check that water companies also factor in. Eventually, they say, people in all countries will have to ration water use by price and realize it is not a free resource for the world.

“Governments globally are reaching a point where they’re not able to finance the delivery of cheap water, which is why the private sector is getting more and more interested,” said Balbach.

SKY’S THE LIMIT FOR REVENUES?

Global private industry sales in water-related sectors are estimated at $400 billion annually, including water infrastructure, treatment plants and new technologies to purify water. Of that total, $50 billion are bottled water sales.

Big investors seem most focused now in higher-tech segments of water companies including filtration, desalination and purification systems. But venture capital is also gravitating toward innovative solutions to costly problems.

California-based Underground Solutions Inc. slips pipes underground to repair leaky pipes that were installed more than 100 years ago without ever digging up city streets.

“Investments in water-related technology will go up by at least 50 percent this year,” said Nick Parker, Cleantech’s co-founder and chairman.

A recent Goldman Sachs report said it was likely, though, that over the next five years water system solutions will continue to be dominated by global giants including GE <GE.N>, Danaher <DHR.N>, ITT <ITT.N> and Siemens <SIEGn.DE>.

GE’s objective is to grow revenues by 8 percent every year “and we will definitely be north of that,” said Earl Jones, general manager of GE’s water and process technologies.

Dow Chemical <DOW.N> saw revenues from its water solutions group reach $450 million last year, more than double water revenues five years earlier. Dow also bought a Chinese engineering company, Zhejiang Omex Environmental Engineering Co., last summer in an acquisition aimed at water technology.

EVEN RICH GETTING POORER?

Agriculture and industry now account for roughly 80 percent of all water use, with the rest consumed by households.

But as industries and agriculture expand, the fight for and cost of water is likely to escalate, with pressure points seen rising in Asia, Australia and the Middle East, experts say.

Even in the United States, traditionally the world’s top food producer and exporter, is caught in the squeeze.

U.S. plans to cut dependence on foreign oil by switching to “green” fuels has ignited an industrial boom in the Midwest as ethanol and soy diesel plants spring up. But biofuel production consumes a huge amount of water, as do crops.

U.S. fresh water supplies are also shrinking.

The Ogallala, one of the largest underground U.S. aquifers, which runs from Nebraska to Texas, has seen water levels drop up to 30 feet in some spots in the last 10 years. A five-year old drought in the Corn Belt there also hasn’t helped.

Water levels in the U.S. Great Lakes, one of the largest pools of fresh water on the planet, are also dropping.

“It’s the most rapidly challenged critical resource in the world. It’s now almost a cliche: the 20th century was the century of oil and the 21st century will be the century of water,” said Henry Henderson of the New York-based Natural Resources Defense Council.

A couple weeks back I blogged about a widely published report that held that the west was entering into a prolonged drying spell. The New York Times detailed solutions being proposed & implimented that included desalination.

What was not mentioned was an idea that will be bandied about during a meeting in Calgary. That meeting will be held next week in Calgary. It addresses the idea of massive water transfers from Canada to the USA & Mexico to address water shortages. You won’t hear about it south of the border however. The only place this is mentioned is in Calgary.

April 25, 2007 April 25, 2007

Next week, government officials and academics from the three countries will gather in Calgary for the two-day North American Future 2025 Project (see page 6)where they’ll brainstorm ideas on how the continent should implement policies to deal with various challenges – including security, energy and labour.

But it’s the agenda on water that has activists concerned, given that the discussions will be held behind closed doors without public scrutiny, said Maude Barlow, national chairwoman of the Council of Canadians.

”We want this out in the light of day. We tried contacting them and they said this meeting is private,” Barlow said. ”How could it be private if it is setting up the political and policy framework for the future of North America?”

An outline of the proceedings states that climate change is expected to greatly exacerbate water shortages in the United States and Mexico while Canada, which has the world’s largest supply of fresh water in the Great Lakes and elsewhere, is not expected to suffer to the same extent.

It goes on to state that ”creative” solutions – such as water transfers and artificial diversions of fresh water – may be needed to address the ”profound changes” that are bound to occur south of the border.

 

Water transfers is something that’s hotly debated in Canada …(search google under Canada “bulk water”) but you don’t hear much about it in the lower 48–though President Bush has mentioned his support for the idea. Asked about the possibility of water transfers world renowned water expert Peter Gleick said the economics simply weren’t there. Mr. Gleick says.

I actually think this enormous controversy over bulk water exports is a little bit silly because no one’s going to be able to afford it,” he says.“And frankly I think some of these people who complain because they have been prohibited from doing it, I think we’ve saved them a lot of money. I think they should have been allowed to do it and go bankrupt.”

Santa Barbara looked into the idea several years back and decided on water desalination even at then current prices.

Never the less, according to a joint report entitled Global Water Futures produced by the CSIS and the Sandia National Laboratories.

Finding 5: Solutions must be innovative, revolutionary, and self-sustaining. Current
trajectories for improvement in freshwater availability and quality are inadequate to meet global
needs in a timely way. Innovative solutions must be found and employed that replace steady,
incremental rates of progress with dramatic, revolutionary changes. These solutions must be designed to be self-sustaining over the long-term.

Given the recognized urgency of the need for water solutions and the fact that the meetings are behind closed doors, it looks like much of the time & effort will be put into expediting Bush’s desire for water transfers–rather than doing any actual brain storming.

This is a shame. Especially as likely it will suck up what federal institutional energy there is behind water desalination R&D. Its especially shameful because the feds could get so much more bang for their buck out desalination R&D.

So if you happen to know someone who knows someone who is attending the meeting in Calgary next week…be sure to mention to them that basic research suggests that the cost of water desalination & transport will collapse in the next 5 to 10 years.

Here are three promising avenues of research mentioned in this blog from three different research labs.

1. Lawrence Livermore

2. UCLA

3. University of Rochester

Here’s a strategy for turning municipal sewage into pure water and oil.

Here’s a strategy for cutting the cost of pumping water

To hasten the pace of research, I would greatly increase the amount of money available to federal university & corporate labs for water desalination research. As well, I would include DARPA in the effort to fund start up companies. Further, I would suggest three ways to focus research dollars.

The first would be to make available prize money like the X-Prize that Newt Gingrich touts as a frugal way to get the most bang for the research buck. I blog about this in a piece called harvesting research unknown unknowns.

The second suggestion would be to attack known unkowns by employing a much less publicized method of crowdsourcing scientific research which I discuss in detail here.

How does a research administrator best deploy his dollars between projects competing for research dollars? Choosing rightly between known knowns is difficult. In fast paced industries companies use something called prediction markets. I discuss this strategy here.

Finally, make plain to those in attendance that those supporting Chinatown type scenarios are going to be overwhelmed and their careers sidelined by scientific innovation. In the next 20 years there will  be more scientific innovation than the last 100 years. The best that the government can do is enable the scientists, the entrepreneurs and the corporations — and then sit tight. Water from Canada is nice but the right stuff comes from the ocean.

 

There’s still a little time left for anyone interested in getting a hand in on these RFPs.

From Water and Wastewater.com
Industry News
New RFP’s from the WateReuse Foundation

Mar 29, 2007 – 2:25:22 PM

Alexandria, VA — The WateReuse Foundation announces the release of three new RFPs under its Solicited Research program. Proposals are to be submitted to the Foundation’s office in Alexandria, VA by 5:00 pm Eastern Time on May 2, 2007.

1) Low Cost Treatment Technologies for Small-Scale Water Reclamation Plants (WRF-06-008)

The overall goals of this project are to identify and evaluate established and innovative treatment technologies that will provide economic treatment processes that can be used in small-scale water reclamation plants, maximize automation to minimize labor requirements, increase treatment efficiency without sacrificing water quality, increase simplicity of operation, and increase the potential to export new treatment technologies to developing countries.

2) Predictive Models to Aid in Design of Membrane Systems for Organic Micropollutants Removal (WRF-06-009)

This project will improve and expand on one or more recently developed preliminary modeling techniques to predict the rejection of bioactive pharmaceutics and specific disinfection byproducts by RO membranes.

3) Guidance on Links Between Water Reclamation and Reuse and Regional Growth (WRF-06-016)

The objective of this project is to provide background and guidance to water reclamation and reuse managers and decision makers on connections between water reuse, water supply reliability, regional economic growth, demographic growth, and quality of life impacts for current residents.

The mission of the WateReuse Foundation is to conduct and promote applied research on the reclamation, recycling, reuse, and desalination of water.

For more information about submitting proposals to the Foundation: http://www.watereuse.org/Foundation/rfp.htm

Source: http://www.watereuse.org/

According to this article:

The Texas Water Development Board awarded San Antonio Water System a $205,000 grant to test a particular technology to turn brackish groundwater into high-quality drinking water.

SAWS will work with the Evergreen Underground Water District to churn highly salinated water into a potable water source for the region.

The research study will determine the feasibility and costs of Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing technology at SAWS’ proposed desalination plant.

SAWS is an add on for membrane technology that prevents fouling. So one thing for membrane researchers out there to consider is that there are transitional ways around fouling like SAWS such that anti fouling need not be accomplished by the membrane itself. Below is the details for how SAWS works. (Come to think of it between SAWS and charge all you need from a membrane is flux.)

Products & Services – Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing VSEP

[Technology] [System Operation] [System Components] [Applications] [Models] [Download]

While membrane-based separations of liquids from solids have enjoyed increasing popularity over the last 20 years, the technology has an inherent Achilles heel that affects all membrane devices: fouling. This long-term loss in throughput capacity is due primarily to the formation of a boundary layer that builds up naturally on the membranes surface during the filtration process. In addition to cutting down on the flux performance of the membrane, this boundary or gel layer acts as a secondary membrane reducing the native design selectivity of the membrane in use. This inability to handle the buildup of solids has also limited the use of membranes to low-solids feed streams.

(Figure1)

To help minimize this boundary layer buildup, membrane designers have used a method known as tangential-flow or cross-flow filtration that relies on high velocity fluid flow pumped across the membranes surface as a means of reducing the boundary layer effect. (See Figure 1)

In cross-flow designs, it is not economic to create high shear forces, thus limiting the use of cross-flow to low-viscosity (watery) fluids. In addition, increased cross-flow velocities result in a significant pressure drop from the inlet (high pressure) to the outlet (lower pressure) end of the device, which leads to premature fouling of the membrane that creeps up the device until permeate rates drop to unacceptably low levels.

(Figure 2)

Instead of producing high cross flow, an alternative method for producing intense shear waves on the face of a membrane is developed. The technique is called Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing (VSEP). In a VSEP System, the feed slurry remains nearly stationary, moving in a leisurely, meandering flow between parallel membrane leaf elements. Shear cleaning action is created by vigorously vibrating the leaf elements in a direction tangent to the faces of the membranes.

The shear waves produced by the membrane’s vibration cause solids and foulants to be lifted off the membrane surface and remixed with the bulk material flowing through the membrane stack. This high shear processing exposes the membrane pores for maximum throughput that is typically between 3 and 10 times the throughput of conventional cross-flow systems. (See Figure 2, above)

The oscillation produces a shear at the membrane surface of about 150,000 inverse seconds (equivalent to over 200 G’s of force), which is approximately 10 times the shear rate of the best conventional cross-flow systems. More importantly, the shear in a VSEP System is focused at the membrane surface where it is cost effective and most useful in preventing fouling, while the bulk fluid between the membrane disks moves very little.

Because VSEP does not depend on feed flow induced shearing forces, the feed slurry can become extremely viscous and still be successfully dewatered. The concentrate is essentially extruded between the vibrating disc elements and exits the machine once it reaches the desired concentration level. Thus, VSEP Systems can be run in a single pass through the system, eliminating the need for costly working tanks, ancillary equipment and associated valving.

The disc pack hold up volume of a system with 1,400 ft2 (130 sq. meters) of membrane area, is less than 50 gallons (189 liters). As a result, product recovery in batch processes can be extremely high.

Most newspapers this week have published reports as to the effect of global warming on deserts in the US southwest. Droughts will be longer and more persistant.

Perhaps in anticipation of the reports the New York Times this week did a piece on the water shortage out west that included methods for aleviating the drought. Water desalination is seen as one of many options to insure secure water supplies.

---

April 4, 2007

An Arid West No Longer Waits for Rain

By RANDAL C. ARCHIBOLD and KIRK JOHNSON

A Western drought that began in 1999 has continued after the respite of a couple of wet years that now feel like a cruel tease. But this time people in the driest states are not just scanning the skies and hoping for rescue.

Some $2.5 billion in water projects are planned or under way in four states, the biggest expansion in the West’s quest for water in decades. Among them is a proposed 280-mile pipeline that would direct water to Las Vegas from northern Nevada. A proposed reservoir just north of the California-Mexico border would correct an inefficient water delivery system that allows excess water to pass to Mexico.

In Yuma, Ariz., federal officials have restarted an idled desalination plant, long seen as a white elephant from a bygone era, partly in the hope of purifying salty underground water for neighboring towns.

The scramble for water is driven by the realities of population growth, political pressure and the hard truth that the Colorado River, a 1,400-mile-long silver thread of snowmelt and a lifeline for more than 20 million people in seven states, is providing much less water than it had.

According to some long-term projections, the mountain snows that feed the Colorado River will melt faster and evaporate in greater amounts with rising global temperatures, providing stress to the waterway even without drought. This year, the spring runoff is expected to be about half its long-term average. In only one year of the last seven, 2005, has the runoff been above average.

Everywhere in the West, along the Colorado and other rivers, as officials search for water to fill current and future needs, tempers are flaring among competing water users, old rivalries are hardening and some states are waging legal fights.

In one of the most acrimonious disputes, Montana filed a suit in February at the United States Supreme Court accusing Wyoming of taking more than its fair share of water from the Tongue and Powder Rivers, north-flowing tributaries of the Yellowstone River that supply water for farms and wells in both states.

Preparing for worst-case outcomes, the seven states that draw water from the Colorado River — Colorado, Wyoming, Utah and New Mexico in the upper basin and California, Arizona and Nevada in the lower basin — and the United States Bureau of Reclamation, which manages the river, are considering plans that lay out what to do if the river cannot meet the demand for water, a prospect that some experts predict will occur in about five years.

“What you are hearing about global warming, explosive growth — combine with a real push to set aside extra water for environmental purpose — means you got a perfect situation for a major tug-of-war contest,” said Sid Wilson, the general manager of the Central Arizona Project, which brings Colorado River water to the Phoenix area.

New scientific evidence suggests that periodic long, severe droughts have become the norm in the Colorado River basin, undermining calculations of how much water the river can be expected to provide and intensifying pressures to find new solutions or sources.

The effects of the drought can be seen at Lake Mead in Nevada, where a drop in the water level left docks hanging from newly formed cliffs, and a marina surrounded by dry land. Upriver at Lake Powell, which is at its lowest level since spring 1973, receding waters have exposed miles of mud in the side canyons leading to the Glen Canyon Dam.

In California, Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger has sounded alarm bells by pushing for a ballot measure in 2008 that would allocate $4.5 billion in bonds for new water storage in the state. The water content in the Sierra Nevada snowpack has reached the lowest level in about two decades, state hydrologists have reported, putting additional pressure on the nation’s most populous state to find and store more water.

“Scientists say that global warming will eliminate 25 percent of our snowpack by the half of this century,” Mr. Schwarzenegger said recently in Fresno, Calif., “which will mean less snow stored in the mountains, which will mean more flooding in the winter and less drinking water in the summer.”

In Montana, where about two-thirds of the Missouri River and half of the Columbia River have their headwaters, officials have embarked on a long-term project to validate old water-rights claims in an effort to legally shore up supplies the state now counts on.

Under the West’s water laws, claims are hierarchal. The oldest, first-filed claims, many dating to pioneer days, get water first, with newer claims at the bottom of the pecking order.

Still, some of the sharpest tensions stem more from population growth than cautionary climate science, especially those between Nevada and Utah, states with booming desert economies and clout to fight for what they say is theirs.

Las Vegas, the fastest-growing major city in the country, and the driest, developed the pipeline plan several years ago to bring groundwater from the rural, northern reaches of the state. The metropolitan area, which relies on the Colorado River for 90 percent of its water, is awaiting approval from Nevada’s chief engineer.

Ranchers and farmers in northern Nevada and Utah are opposed to the pipeline plan and have vowed to fight it in court, saying it smacks of the famous water grab by Los Angeles nearly a century ago that caused severe environmental damage in the Owens Valley in California.

“Southern Nevada thinks it can come up here and suck all these springs dry without any problems,” said Dean Baker, whose family’s ranch straddles the Nevada-Utah border, pointing out springs that farmers have run dry with their own wells. “We did this ourselves. Now imagine what pumping for a whole big city is going to do.”

Meanwhile, Utah has proposed a $500 million, 120-mile pipeline from Lake Powell to serve the fast-growing City of St. George and Washington County in the state’s southwestern corner. Nevada officials have said they will seek to block that plan if Utah stands in the way of theirs.

“Utah is being very disingenuous, and we’re calling them on it,” said Patricia Mulroy, the chief executive of the Southern Nevada Water Authority, the agency responsible for finding water for Las Vegas and its suburbs. “St. George, Utah, is growing as fast as southern Nevada, because the growth is going right up the I-15 corridor.”

Dennis J. Strong, director of the Utah Division of Water Resources, said Nevada was protesting too much and instead should be cheering the Lake Powell project because Colorado River water that Utah does not use would flow in Nevada’s direction. Mr. Strong said that Nevada’s protests “may be a bargaining chip.” He said he hoped for a compromise that would allow both projects to move forward.

In Yuma, near the Arizona border with Mexico, officials have pinned hopes on a desalination plant built 15 years ago. The plan then had been to treat salty runoff from farms before it made its way into Colorado River headed to Mexico, thus meeting the terms of an old water treaty.

But a series of unusually wet years made it more efficient to meet the treaty obligations with water from Lake Mead, so the plant sat idle. Drought has changed all that. Arizona water managers, who are first in line to have their water cut in a shortage under an agreement with other states, called for the plant to be turned on.

Under an agreement with environmentalists, the federal Bureau of Reclamation plans to monitor the environmental effects of using the plant, and study, among other things, using the purified water for purposes other than meeting its treaty obligations, like supplying the growing communities around Yuma.

“It never made sense to me to just dump bottled-water quality water into the river anyway,” said Jim Cherry, the bureau’s Yuma area manager.

What unites the Western states is a growing consensus among scientists that future climate change and warmer temperatures, if they continue, could hit harder here than elsewhere in the continental United States.

“The Western mountain states are by far more vulnerable to the kinds of change we’ve been talking about compared to the rest of the country, with the New England states coming in a relatively distant second,” said Michael Dettinger, a research hydrologist at the United States Geological Survey who studies the relationships between water and climate.

Mr. Dettinger said higher temperatures had pushed the spring snowmelt and runoff to about 10 days earlier on average than in the past. Higher temperatures would mean more rain falling rather than snow, compounding issues of water storage and potentially affecting flooding.

In some places, the new tensions and pressures could even push water users toward compromise.

Colorado recently hired a mediator to try to settle a long-running dispute over how water from the Rocky Mountains should be shared among users in the Denver area and the western half of the state. Denver gets most of the water and has most of the state’s population. But water users in the mountains, notably the ski resort industry, also have clout and want to keep their share.

Robert W. Johnson, the Bureau of Reclamation commissioner, said he shared the optimism that the disputes could be worked out, but he said he thought it might take a reconsideration of the West’s original conception of what water was for.

The great dams and reservoirs that were envisioned beginning in the 1800s were conceived with farmers in mind, and farmers still take about 90 percent of the Colorado River’s flow. More and more, Mr. Johnson said, the cities will need that water.

An agreement reached a few years ago between farmers and the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, the chief supplier of water to that region, is one model. Under the terms of the agreement, farmers would let their fields lie fallow and send water to urban areas in exchange for money to cover the crop losses.

“I definitely see that as the future,” Mr. Johnson said.

Randal C. Archibold reported from Yuma, Ariz., and Kirk Johnson from Denver.

Consider this Craig Ventor piece  about the new treasure trove of bacteria dna/proteins brought in by Craig Venter’s Institute. Science critics are hailing his work as the biggest deal in ocean going genetics since the Beagle voyages of Charles Darwin.

How would this effect desalination research. It would be helpful if someone in the desalination community tasked the Craig Ventor Institute to keep an eye out for proteins that do desalination work.

Great. So you get some desalination proteins. How do you make them into something useful?

Remember Ventor as you read the article below.

Public release date: 28-Mar-2007

Contact: Susan Trulove
STrulove@vt.edu
540-231-5646
Virginia Tech

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-03/vt-stf031907.php

Smart thin film membranes adopt properties of guest molecules

Blacksburg, Va., March 28, 2007 — Virginia Tech researchers announced last year that they had created a nanostructured membrane that incorporates DNA base pairs in order to impart molecular recognition and binding ability to the synthetic material. This year they will show for the first time that these new films, membranes, and elastomers are compatible with diverse organic and inorganic molecules and will adopt properties of the guest molecules.

The research is being presented as an invited talk at the 233rd national meeting of the American Chemical Society in Chicago March 25-29.

Chemistry professor Tim Long’s research group, students affiliated with the Macromolecule and Interfaces Institute (MII) at Virginia Tech, and the U.S. Army Research Laboratory created a block copolymer, where different monomers are linked in a sequential manner and form a nanostructured film. They used adenine and thymine nucleotides, two of the four DNA base pairs that recognize each other. Then the researchers experimented with different kinds of guest molecules with complementary hydrogen bonding sites (hydrogen has a low energy attraction to many types of atoms).

The low energy attraction, means the guest molecules are widely dispersed throughout the membrane, which then takes on the properties of the guest molecules. “For example,” said Long, “if the guest molecules have ionic sites (sites with positive and negative charges), you will be able to transfer water through a film because you would have ion channels at the nanoscale. It’s similar to the way a cell membrane works to control the flow of specific ions into a cell. You can create protective clothing – against chemicals – that would still allow water vapor through.”

Salts, as ordinary table salt, are hydrophilic (water loving) and their introduction into a block copolymer template permits the placement of the salts at the nanometer dimension. One can imagine forming of channels of salts that are not visible with the human eye, but act as a roadway for the transport of water molecules.

“The research is synergy at the nanotechnology-biotechnology interface,” Long said.

###

The talk, “Nucleobase-containing triblock copolymers as templates for the dispersion of guest molecules at the nanoscale” (PMSE 423) will be presented at 9:05 a.m. Wednesday, March 28, in McCormick Place South room S505A. Authors are Brian Mather of Albuquerque, a chemical engineering doctoral student in MII; Margaux B. Baker, an undergraduate student from the University of Michigan who studied with Long’s group during summer 2006; Long, and Frederick L. Beyer of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory.

Mather received his undergraduate degree from the University of New Mexico. Learn more about his research at Virginia Tech by visiting www.chem.vt.edu/chem-dept/tlong/Brian.html.

---

[ Print Article | E-mail Article | Close Window ]

This is useful info to anyone doing membrane research. The key take away is that water molecules keep a distance of one molecule diameter from a water repelling surface. The article is here, as well as below.

Mind the gap: New information on the hydrophobic water gap

Gap between the ordered molecules of a hydrophobic layer and water. The water molecules keep a distance of about one molecular diameter. Credit: Max Planck Institute Researchers have found a gap between water and a water-repelling surface that can give new insight into the way water and oil separate. By using high-energy X-rays at the ESRF, an international team defined the size and characteristics of this gap. The knowledge of the structure of a hydrophobic interface is important because they are crucial in biological systems, and can give insight in protein folding and stability. The researchers publish their results this week in PNAS Early Online Edition.

The repulsion of water is a phenomenon present in many aspects of our lives. Detergent molecules made up of components attracted to water (hydrophilic) and others that repel it (hydrophobic). Proteins also use the interaction with water to assemble into complexes. However, studying hydrophobic structures and what occurs when they encounter water is not entirely straightforward as it is influenced by certain factors. Early studies of the gap formed between water and a hydrophobic surface did not show a coherent picture.Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Metals Research (Germany), the University of South Australia (Adelaide) and the ESRF carried out experiments on silicon wafers covered by a water-repulsive layer at the surface. The wafers were then immersed in water by a special cell. Studies of the water structure at the interface of the hydrophobic layer confirmed that a gap is formed between the layer and water and that its size is the diameter of a water molecule, somewhere between 0.1 and 0.5 nanometer. The integrated density deficit at the interface amounts to half a monolayer of water molecules.The scientists did further experiments in order to test the influence of gas, which is naturally present in water, on the hydrophobic water gap. During all their experiments they kept the water ultra clean (unlike water in nature) and they introduced gas into the cell until saturation. The result shows that, contrary to previous reports, gas does not play a role in the structure of water at flat interfaces. This is the first time that high energy synchrotron X-rays have been used as a tool to measure the properties of this gap. “Some teams have used neutrons, but they didn’t have enough resolution, after all, the gap is extremely small and difficult to track,” explained Harald Reichert, the paper’s corresponding author. Despite the superior quality of the X-ray beam, the experiment was still a challenge: the water-repellent layer on the silicon wafer can survive only 50 seconds under the beam, so measurements had to be completed very quickly. The next step for the team is to produce porous structures and study the properties of water at confined pore interfaces. “These studies will increase our knowledge of how water behaves in different environments. The structure of water in these environments is still, somewhat a mystery to us, despite the fact that our world is surrounded by water”, declared Reichert. Source: European Synchrotron Radiation Facility

This news is brought to you by PhysOrg.com

This water modeling tool might be useful:

The first comes from Researchers at the University of Delaware:

Equipped with high-speed computers and the laws of physics, scientists from the University of Delaware and Radboud University in the Netherlands have developed a new method to “flush out” the hidden properties of water–and without the need for painstaking laboratory experiments.

The UD researchers used clusters of Linux computers to perform the large-scale computer calculations required for the research. The study took several months to complete.

The result is a new model — the first that can accurately predict both the properties of a pair of water molecules and of liquid water.

Among its many applications, the research should help scientists better understand water in not only its liquid form, but in other states as well, such as crystalline forms of ice, and water in extreme conditions, including highly reactive “supercritical” water, which is used to remove pollutants in wastewater and recover waste plastic in chemical recycling, Szalewicz said.

The model might also be used to model H2O in solution with Na & Cl. Anyhow, there ought to be a way for desalination researchers to make use of the new modeling tool on request.

The rest of the article can be found here.

I mentioned last October at the end of a post that:

Penny Smith, a mathematician at Lehigh University, has posted a paper on the arXiv that purports to solve one of the Clay Foundation Millenium problems, the one about the Navier-Stokes Equation. The paper is here, and Christina Sormani has set up a web-page giving some background and exposition of Smith’s work.

There’s further work here.

Fluid dynamics theory works on nanoscale outside vacuum

A propane liquid nanobridge breaks up in a nitrogen gas environment. Credit: Georgia Tech/Uzi Landman

In 2000, Georgia Tech researchers showed that fluid dynamics theory could be modified to work on the nanoscale, albeit in a vacuum. Now, seven years later they’ve shown that it can be modified to work in the real world, too – that is, outside of a vacuum. The results appear in the February 9 issue of Physical Review Letters.

It’s well-known that small systems are influenced by randomness and noise more than large systems. Because of this, Georgia Tech physicist Uzi Landman reasoned that modifying the Navier-Stokes equations to include stochastic elements – that is give the probability that an event will occur – would allow them to accurately describe the behavior of liquids in the nanoscale regime.

Writing in the August 18, 2006, issue of PRL, Landman and post doctoral fellow Michael Moseler used computer simulation experiments to show that the stochastic Navier-Stokes formulation does work for fluid nanojets and nanobridges in a vacuum. The theoretical predictions of this early work have been confirmed experimentally by a team of European scientists (see the December 13, 2006, issue of Physical Review Letters). Now, Landman and graduate student Wei Kang have discovered that by further modifying the Moseler-Landman stochastic Navier-Stokes equations, they can accurately describe this behavior in a realistic non-vacuous environment.

To read the full article go here.

Nanotube formation captured on video. (click here for video)

A Cambridge University-led team of scientists have successfully produced live video footage that shows how carbon nanotubes, more than 10,000 times smaller in diameter than a human hair, form.

The video sequences show nanofibres and nanotubes nucleating around miniscule particles of nickel and are already offering greater insight into how these microscopic structures self-assemble. The films can be viewed on the Cambridge University website.

In particular, the team discovered that the carbon network is guided into tubular shape by a drastic restructuring of the nickel – the catalyst in the process. They were also able to track and time the deposition of the carbon around the nickel.

Carbon nanotubes are new building blocks enabling engineers to improve and further miniaturise everyday electronic devices like computers or mobile phones. At the moment scientists can grow nanotubes but cannot accurately control their structure.

Being able to do so is vital as it is the very structure of a nanotube that dictates its properties. The nano-scale video observations mean that scientists will be able to better understand the nucleation of nanotubes and are therefore an important step on the route towards application.

The two sequences show action taking place in real time on an astonishingly small scale. The difference in size between a single-walled nanotube and a human hair is close to the difference between the same human hair and the Eiffel Tower. The microscopic scale involved has, in the past, made it difficult to understand the growth process.

The team used X-rays produced at a synchrotron (a type of particle accelerator) and a modified high-resolution transmission electron microscope to observe and film a process called catalytic chemical vapour deposition. This is one of several methods of producing nanotubes, and involves the application of a gas containing carbon (in this case acetylene) to minute crystalline droplets referred to as “catalyst islands” (the nickel).

As the gas is applied carbon sticks to the catalyst islands forming layers of graphite. In conditions appropriate to creating nanofibres, the nickel particle was pushed upwards in a series of peristaltic movements as the carbon continued to deposit on its sides. At several points the nickel formed a cap which almost “popped” out of the forming tube, leaving a layer of graphite behind it. This process is called “bambooing”, because the resultant carbon nanofibre is a cylinder containing several cavities, each one separated by one of these graphite layers, similar in form to bamboo. Throughout the whole process, the nickel remained crystalline rather than liquid.

The team then looked at conditions more appropriate to producing single-walled carbon nanotubes, which involved less acetylene. The catalyst is not squeezed upwards. Instead, a cap of carbon formed on the top of the nickel, and gradually extended from it to form a tubular structure. The catalyst island was squeezed and reshaped by this process and was moulded by the carbon forming around it rather than retaining its original form.

Dr Stephan Hofmann, who led the research, said: “In order to reach the full application potential for nanotubes, we need to be able to accurately control their growth first. As a manifestation of the impressive progress of nanometrology, we are actually now able to watch molecular objects grow. This new video footage shows that the catalyst itself remains crystalline but is constantly changing its shape as the carbon network is formed around it.

“We cannot yet solve the problem of not being able to self-assemble carbon nanotubes with well-defined characteristics, but we have discovered that if we are to do so, we need to be mindful not just of the carbon dynamics but the changing shape of the catalyst as well.”

« Older Posts — Newer Posts »